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Strategy

Definition

Example

Avoidance or Reduction Strategies

1

Message abandonment

leaving a message unfinished because of language difficulties

speakers change the subject when they frustrated

2

Topic avoidance

avoiding topic areas or concepts which pose language difficulties.

Highly technical (e.g., science) or sensitive (e.g., death) language is avoided

Achievement or Compensatory Strategies

3

Circumlocution

describing or exemplifying the target object or action

 the thing  you open bottles with for "corkscrew"

4

Approximation

using an alternative term which expresses the meaning of the target lexical item as closely as possible

ship for sail boat

5

Use of all-purpose words

extending a general, empty lexical item to contexts where specific words are lacking

the overuse of thing, stuff, make, do, as well as using words like, what-do-you-call-it

6

Word-coinage

creating a nonexisting L2 word based on a supposed rule

vegetarianist  for vegetarian

7

Use of nonlinguistic means

mime, gesture, facial expression, or sound imitation

using one's body language to get messages across

8

Literal translation

translating literally a lexical item, an idiom, a compound word or structure from L1 to L2

"Got sem chu-ee" (Korean) means "The wind is jealous of the flowers" in English

9

Foreignizing

using an L1 word by adjusting it to L2 phonologically (i.e., with an L2 pronunciation) and/or morphologically

adding to it an L2 suffix

10

Code switching

using an L1 word with L1 pronunciation or an L3 word with L3 pronunciation in L2

"Do you prefer chu-toro or lean maguro?"

11

Appeal for help

turning to the conversation partner for help either directly or indirectly

directly: What do you call . . . ? or

indirectly: rising intonation, pause, eye contact, puzzled expression

Stalling or Time-gaining Strategies

12

Use of fillers/hesitation

devices

using filling words or gambits to fill pauses and to gain time to think

"well, now let me see", or "as a matter of fact"

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Term

Definition

Original examples provided by the author of this paper

Forms of positive feedback:

1

Repetition:

The teacher repeats the

student’s correct answer.

=Student: "I went shopping."

=Teacher: "Oh, you went shopping...”...

a form of agreement

2

Rephrasing:

The teacher accepts the student’s answer but aims to expand the student’s knowledge, to polish the utterance structure, or to show a new structure which rephrases the answer given by the student using different words, and in some cases, adds new information.

=S: "Not at school yesterday..."

=T: "Oh, you stayed home from school yesterday."

Forms of negative/corrective feedback as Giving-Answer Strategies (GAS):

3

Repetition:

The teacher repeats the error or the portion of the learner’s phrase containing the error, using stress or rising intonation to focus the student’s attention on the problematic part

of the utterance.

=S: "I Goed to the market."

=T: "You goed there."

a mirroring of  error with expressions of disbelief (intonation, facial expressions, gestures, eye contact)

4

Recast:

Reformulation of all or part of the student’s answer, providing the target form.

=S: "The supermarket have many fried chickens."

= T: "Wow... It has lots of fried chicken then..."

5

Explicit correction:

The teacher provides the correct target form. This differs from recast because the teacher directly corrects the error without rephrasing or reformulating the student’s answer.

=S: "We go last night..."

=T: "went... went last night"

6

Give answer:

Feedback used in cases when the student does not know or is unsure of the answer.

=S: "There was lots of rain and. . ." (Student does not know how to say 'thunder' or 'lightning').

=T: "Thunder and Lightning" (Teacher completes the answer ).

Forms of negative/corrective feedback as Prompting-Answer Strategies (PAS):

7

Meta-linguistic cues:

The teacher provides information or asks questions regarding the correctness of the student’s utterance, without explicitly providing the target form.

=S: "Do you see me yesterday?"

=T: "You have to use the past tense with 'yesterday'."

8

Clarification requests:

These are questions intended to indicate to the student that his/her answer has been misunderstood due to a student error, or that the utterance is ill-formed in some way and that a  repetition or reformulation is required. Clarification requests often include phrases such as "Pardon me", "What?" or "What do you mean?".

= S: "I have a sick leg."

=T: "What do you mean?"

9

Elicitation:

The teacher encourages the student to give the correct form by pausing to allow the student to complete the teacher’s utterance, by asking the student to reformulate the utterance, or by asking questions to elicit the correct answer, such as "How do we say that in Spanish?"

=T: "What do you do after breakfast?"

=S: Student gestures washing her face...

=T: "How do you say that in English?"